Demographic and Social Factors
A. Definitions
1. Social networks
o Social networks = web of social relationships surrounding an individual, & characteristics of those ties.
o Characteristics of networks, called structural measures: size (# network members), density (extent to which members are connected to each other), boundedness (degree to which networks are defined on the basis of traditional group structures), & homogeneity (extent to which individuals are similar to each other).
o Characteristics of individual social ties: frequency of contact (# face-to-face contacts and/or contacts by phone or mail), multiplexity (# of types of transactions or support flowing through a set of ties), duration (the length of time an individual knows another), & reciprocity (extent to which exchanges & transactions are reciprocal).
2. Social integrationo Social integration = degree to which an individual is integrated into, connected to, or embedded in society; a multidimensional construct that includes behavioral component (active engagement in range of activities and/or social relationships) & cognitive component (sense of communality & identification with one's social roles)
o Networks are often measured in a general way that taps social integration, e.g., # close friends & relatives, marital status, membership in religious or voluntary associations (Berkman & Syme 1979).
o Social integration is also conceptualized as having multiple identities or social ties entailing multiple roles (Thoits 1983). Social networks define & reinforce meaningful social roles, including parental, familial, occupational, & community roles, which provide a sense of purpose, value, belonging, & attachment.
3. Social supporto Social support = help an individual receives or perceives from social network members
o Subtypeso Perceived vs. received supporto Emotional support = things that others do that make a person feel loved, cared for, understood, & that bolster sense of self-worth (e.g., providing encouragement & positive feedback). Usually provided by confidant or intimate other. Also known as confidant support, esteem support, attachment, intimacy.
o Instrumental support = help or assistance with tangible needs (e.g. transportation, shopping, cooking, cleaning, childcare, paying bills). Also known as tangible support, behavioral assistance, material aid.
o Appraisal support = help in decision making & giving appropriate feedback
o Informational support = help offered through the provision of advice or information.
o Support measures are often referred to as functional measureso Perceived support= an individual's perception that there are others available to him/her who would provide support if needed
o Received support = how satisfied an individual is with support actually provided by others
Related constructs
o Companionship = "shared leisure & other activities that are undertaken primarily for the intrinsic goal of enjoyment" (Rook, 1987, 1990)
4. Social conflicto Validation = feedback via social comparison processes
o Social conflict = various types of negative social interaction that may occur within social relationships (arguments, criticism, hostility, unwanted demands), or transactions that are perceived as unsupportive.
o Social conflict may include physical violence (treated separately, in next section)
5. Social capital/cohesion
o Social capital = features of social relationships, such as norms & networks, that promote collective action for mutual benefit.
o Crucial elements of social capitalo it arises as a by-product of social relationships, particularly those with dense ties that foster trust, mutual aid & cooperation, & observance of norms & informal social control
o it is a collective dimension of society, external to the individual
o it facilitates & promotes actions of individuals or groups
o Some ambiguity in the construct: Social capital seemingly encompasses both the structure & function of social relationships - i.e., the sources of social capital have not been distinguished from the benefits derived from it (e.g., social capital in the form of trust is created as a by-product of participation in civic associations, which itself is also an indicator of social capital.).
o Bonding vs. bridging social capital (Putnam 2000)Related constructs:o Bonding (exclusive) social capital = relationships that are inward-looking & tend to reinforce strong in-group loyalty (e.g., strong family & ethnic ties, fraternal organizations, church-based groups).
o Bridging (inclusive) social capital = relationships that are outward looking & include people of diverse social groups (e.g., youth service groups or the civil rights movement)
o Psychological sense of community = "a feeling that members have of belonging & being important to each other, & a shared faith that members' needs will be met by the commitment to be together (Chavis et al. 1986, p. 11).
o Dimensions of psychological sense of community (MacMillan & Chavis, 1986)
o Membership = the sense of feeling part of a group
o Influence = the reciprocal relationship of the individual & community in terms of their ability to affect change in each other
o Fulfillment of needs or integration = the sense that individuals' needs will be met through cooperative behavior within community
o Emotional connection = the emotional support that stems from a shared history in the community.o Debate as to whether sense of community manifests itself at community as well as individual level.
